i  » 


S.  R.  S.  Doc.  81.  A.  I.  11. 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

STATES  RELATIONS  SERVICE. 
A.  C.  TRUE,  Director. 


BEEF  PRODUCTION 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS  IN  SECONDA 

By  H.  P.  Barrows,  Specialist  in  Agricultu 
INTRODUCTION. 

The  present  situation  with  regard  to  our  national  food  supply  demands  that  more 
careful  consideration  be  given  the  production  of  meat  on  the  farm.  It  is  especially 
necessary  for  the  farmer  to  consider  carefully  the  essentials  of  beef  production  if  he 
is  to  make  any  money  in  feeding  high-priced  forage  and  grain  to  beef  animals.  The 
present  food  situation  is,  in  fact,  calling  for  better  methods  in  all  phases  of  farming, 
and  it  is  necessary  for  the  teacher  of  agriculture  to  do  his  part  in  aiding  in  the  present 
crisis  and  in  preparing  for  the  new  era  in  agriculture  which  is  dawning  upon  us.  It 
is  more  than  likely  that  the  demand  for  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  in  beef  production 
such  as  is  needed  at  present  will  continue,  as  the  passing  of  the  range  will  cause  beef 
to  be  a  relatively  high-priced  product.  The  needs  of  to-morrow  as  well  as  the  require- 
ments of  to-day  must  be  kept  in  mind  in  training  the  farmers  of  the  future. 

ADAPTING  THE  COURSE  TO  COMMUNITY  NEEDS. 

Beef  production  should  be  but  an  incidental  phase  of  a  general  course  in  animal 
husbandry  in  all  sections  of  the  United  States  where  it  does  not  form  a  definite  impor- 
tant part  of  the  farming  of  the  section  in  which  the  school  is  serving.  In  other  dis- 
tricts a  good  part  of  the  course  may  very  well  be  based  upon  the  care  and  management 
of  beef  cattle,  as  this  work  forms  an  important  phase  of  local  agriculture.  In  such 
sections  some  of  the  larger  secondary  schools  are  very  properly  giving  a  special  course 
in  beef  production  of  a  practical  nature. 

The  nature  as  well  as  the  extent  of  the  treatment  of  the  subject  should  depend 
upon  local  demands.  In  many  sections  of  the  East  the  problems  are  centered  entirely 
around  the  purchase  and  fattening  of  feeding  stock;  most  ranchers  in  the  far  West 
produce  the  feeders,  with  no  attempt  at  fattening,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  Middle 
West  the  cattle  are  raised  and  finished  for  market  on  the  same  farm.  As  much  time 
might  be  wasted  in  considering  methods  of  finishing  in  some  of  the  mountain  dis- 
tricts of  the  West  as  there  would  be  in  considering  range  management  in  the  East. 
Each  district  will  have  its  peculiar  local  problems  as  well  as  problems  peculiar  to  the 
wider  section.  In  many  districts  of  the  South  the  tick  question  is  still  the  big  prob- 
lem, while  in  others  it  is  a  matter  of  getting  animals  of  better  beef  breeding.  In  all 
parts  of  the  South  and  West  there  are  sections  ideal  for  the  production  of  cheap  beef 
if  there  were  better  marketing  facilities. 

A  LOCAL  SURVEY. 

Purpose. — If  the  course  is  to  be  adapted  to  meet  local  conditions,  the  instructor 
and  his  class  should  make  a  systematic  effort  to  learn  what  the  community  is  doing 
by  way  of  beef  production.  The  purposes  of  such  a  survey,  stated  more  specifically, 
are  as  follows: 

(1)  It  affords  the  teacher  an  opportunity  to  learn  the  agriculture  of  the  community. 

(2)  It  gives  the  students  opportunity  to  get  concrete  experience  and  information 
at  first  hand. 

i  Prepared  under  the  direction  of  F.  E.  Heald,  Specialist  in  Agricultural  Education,  in  charge. 
41616°— 18 


(3)  Material  is  afforded  for  classroom  instruction  and  suggestions  received  for  con- 
ducting home  projects. 

(4)  Material  is  located  and  opportunity  suggested  for  class  practicums. 

(5)  A  way  is  opened  for  local  extension  service. 

(6)  Data  may  be  collected  which  will  be  useful  to  State  and  Federal  agricultural 
workers. 

Method. — Teachers  employed  throughout  the  year  often  spend  part  of  their  summer 
time  in  securing  agricultural  data  in  their  districts  in  connection  with  the  super- 
vision of  home  projects.  The  work  will  mean  more  to  the  students,  however,  if  they 
participate  in  gathering  the  information.  Some  of  the  older  and  more  discreet  stu- 
dents can  render  valuable  assistance  in  visiting  farmers  of  the  district.  Each  student 
should  secure  the  information  from  his  home  farm  and  from  nearby  neighbors  if 
possible.  After  all  reports  are  in  the  data  should  be  tabulated  for  further  use.  '  It 
will  aid  greatly  in  visualizing  the  results  to  show  them  on  a  map  of  the  district.  The 
survey  of  beef  production  may  be  but  a  part  of  a  general  live-stock  survey  or  a  farm- 
management  survey  of  the  district. 

Survey  outline. — The  following  questions  are  suggestive  of  a  form  which  may  be 
adapted  to  meet  various  local  needs: 

General  character  and  size  of  farm. — Acres  in  permanent  pasture Acres 

in  crops Undeveloped  land Total  acres Value  per  acre 

Number  of  cattle ,  horses ,  sheep ,  swine Is  the  fertility 

and  general  value  of  the  land  increasing? 

Equipment. — Shelter,  nature  and  capacity  of  barns  and  sheds What  natural 

shelter  is  provided? Nature  and  capacity  of  silo Provisions  for  water 

in  winter Racks,  self-feeders,  and  other  feeding  equipment Dipping 

vats  and  other  equipment  for  prevention  and  control  of  disease  

Systems  of  management. — Are  cattle  raised  for  feeding?  Are  they  sold 

as  feeders  or  finished  for  market? Are  feeders  purchased? Number 

per  year Age Type  Where  bought Winter    or 

summer  feeding Are  cattle  raised  for  breeding  purposes? Number 

of  breeding  animals Breed Is  baby  beef  produced? Method 

of  raising  calves Method  of  managing  bull How  many  cattle  can 

one  man  care  for  on  this  farm? General  remarks  as  to  system  of  manage- 
ment   

Feeds  and  feeding. — Amount  and  nature  of  pasture Crops  used  for  pas- 
ture      Acreage  required  per  animal When  turned  on  to  pasture 

When  taken  off Supplementary  feeding Provisions  for  water  and 

shade Roughage  fed  in  winter:  Amount  per  animal  and  kind  of  hay,  stover, 

silage,  beet  pulp,  etc Method  of  feeding  roughage Concentrates: 

Amount  per  animal  of  corn  and  other  grains  Fed  whole  or  ground 

Commercial  concentrates,  such  as  linseed-oil  meal,  cottonseed  meal,  brewer's  grain 

How  are  concentrates  fed? Do  hogs  follow  the  cattle? How 

many  to  each? What  are  the  most  important  feeding  problems?  

Prevention  and  control  of  disease. — Are  animals  inspected  carefully  when  brought 

to  the  farm?  Methods  of  dipping  Rotation  of  pastures  

Vaccination What   are   the   chief   problems   in   disease   prevention   and 

control? 

Results. — What  gains  are  made  by  animals  of  different  weights  in  the  feed  lot? 

What  gains  are  made  on  pasture? What  is  the  amount  received  per 

cwt.  for  crops  of  the  farm  fed  co  live  stock?  . . . How  does  this  price  compare 

with  market  price  of  products? What  is  the  labor  cost  per  head?  

What  is  the  cost  of  marketing  per  head? Total  cost  per  cwt Amount 

received  per  cwt Weight  and  condition  of  animals  sold How  and 

where  marketed? Amount  of  shrinkage  per  head Grading  of  cattle 

by  purchaser  What  are  the  leading  marketing  problems?   

CLASSROOM  INSTRUCTION. 

Use  of  reference  material. — Although  the  experience  of  the  community  and  of  the 
students  upon  their  home  farms  and  in  connection  with  their  home  projects  should 
be  made  the  basis  for  a  good  part  of  the  classroom  instruction,  good  use  may  be  made 
of  a  text  and  the  abundance  of  reference  material  available  in  the  shape  of  books, 
bulletins,  and  farm  papers.  The  books  available  range  from  a  meager  treatment 
of  the  subject  in  a  general  text  in  animal  husbandry  to  special  treatises  on  feeding, 
breeding,  types,  and  breeds,  and  even  upon  the  particular  breeds;  hence  there  should 
be  no  difficulty  in  securing  a  text  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  course  given.  Any  text 
will  need  supplementing  to  fit  a  course  adjusted  to  meet  needs  of  students  and  com- 
munity.  In  the  wide  range  of  the  phases  of  beef  production  covered  in  the  bulletins 


of  this  department  will  be  found  much  valuable  supplementary  material;  in  fact, 
these  publications  may  be  used  in  many  courses  in  lieu  of  a  text.  In  adapting  the 
work  to  meet  local  needs,  the  publications  of  the  State  agricultural  college  should 
be  used.  There  are  several  live-stock  journals  of  national  scope  which  may  be  used 
effectively.  If  files  are  not  kept  of  the  papers,  the  articles  suitable  for  reference  use 
should  be  clipped  and  filed  according  to  subject.  If  such  a  method  is  used,  one  will 
turn  to  a  file  labeled  "Beef  Production"  or  "Beef  Cattle, "  and  probably  will  find 
there  timely  articles  pertaining  to  the  subject.  Live-stock  journals  will  be  useful 
also  as  sources  of  illustrative  material  and  as  a  means  of  keeping  up  with  market 
conditions. 

Use  of  illustrative  material. — (1)  Field  trips. — Wherever  there  is  time  and  opportu- 
nity the  most  profitable  instruction  may  be  given  outside  the  classroom.  Field  trips 
should  be  taken  to  surrounding  farms  for  the  purpose  of  studying  progressive,  modern 
methods  of  management,  for  the  study  of  the  best  types  and  breeds  of  beef  animals, 
and  for  a  critical  examination  of  equipment.  At  times  it  may  be  worth  while  to  give 
some  consideration  to  inferior  methods,  stock,  and  equipment  for  purposes  of  con- 
trast. Live-stock  sales,  exhibits,  and  fairs  as  a  rule  afford  unusual  opportunities  to 
see  the  best  in  types  and  breeds  and  afford  opportunity  for  observation  and  practice 
in  judging.  In  connection  with  a  study  of  beef  and  the  beef  type,  it  will  be  worth 
while  to  visit  local  butchers  or  stockyards  and  abattoirs,  if  these  are  available.  Every 
field  trip  should  have  a  definite  purpose  and  close  supervision.  Students  should 
be  required  to  report  their  observations  either  orally  or  in  writing. 

(2)  Classroom  material. — It  should  not  be  difficult  to  secure  samples  of  commercial 
feeding  stuffs  and  of  packing-house  products  for  classroom  use.  Student  should 
prepare  samples  of  local  feeding  stuffs  also,  to  be  a  part  of  the  school  museum.  An 
exhibit  should  show  sample  rations  for  various  purposes  and  stages  in  the  feeding 
process.  A  set  of  lantern  slides  in  which  the  good  and  bad  in  types  and  breeds  of 
beef  cattle  and  in  methods  of  management  are  shown  will  be  very  helpful  if  the 
school  has  a  stereopticon.  The  division  of  agricultural  instruction  in  schools  of  the 
States  Relations  Service  will  be  glad  to  put  teachers  in  touch  with  sources  of  such 
lantern  slides.  In  the  absence  of  a  stereopticon  good  use  may  be  made  of  pictures 
and  charts.  All  of  the  better  live-stock  papers  have  excellent  illustrations  which 
may  be  used  in  establishing  ideals  in  animals,  equipment,  and  methods.  Catalogues 
of  dealers  and  breeders  have  value  for  the  same  purpose.  Outlines  showing  beef 
conformation,  points  in  judging,  cuts  of  beef,  plans  of  buildings,  and  other  equipment 
may  be  made  in  permanent  form  on  cloth  or  paper  or  sketched  upon  the  blackboard. 
Any  wise  use  of  such  material  will  have  value  in  arousing  interest  and  visualizing 
the  lesson. 

Sequence  of  subject  matter. — Inasmuch  as  much  of  the  work  with  beef  cattle  runs 
throughout  the  year,  and  seasonal  adaptation  depends  so  much  on  locality,  the  sug- 
gestions which  follow  regarding  subjects  and  topics  are  based  upon  a  logical,  rather 
than  a  chronological  or  seasonal  sequence. 

General  principles  of  feeding. — It  is  assumed  that  a  course  in  animal  husbandry  will 
include  a  consideration  of  the  general  principles  which  underlie  the  feeding  of  all 
farm  animals.  The  extent  and  nature  of  the  lessons  given  must  depend  upon  the 
time  available  and  the  previous  preparation  which  the  students  have  had.  Students 
who  have  had  a  course  in  human  physiology  in  the  high  school  should  have  little 
difficulty  in  understanding  how  to  apply  to  the  feeding  of  animals  the  principles  of 
nutrition  which  they  have  learned.  On  the  other  hand,  the  teacher  of  agriculture 
should  bear  in  mind  that  it  will  be  well  worth  while  to  work  out  with  the  students 
who  have  not  had  physiology  the  fundamentals  of  nutrition,  not  only  because  of 
their  value  in  a  proper  understanding  of  animal  feeding,  but  also  because  of  their 
application  to  the  care  of  their  own  bodies.  If  students  have  not  had  a  course  in 
chemistry,  it  will  be  necessary  to  take  some  time  to  make  clear,  in  the  first  lessons, 
the  elementary  chemical  knowledge  involved.  Care  should  be  taken,  however,  not 
to  make  these  lessons  too  technical  nor  too  abstract.  The  principles  of  nutrition 
should  be  connected  as  closely  as  possible  with  the  practice  of  feeding  and  approached 
as  far  as  possible  in  an  inductive  way  through  concrete  experience  which  the  students 
have  had.  The  following  outline  should  prove  suggestive  of  general  lessons  which 
may  be  applied  later  to  specific  problems  in  feeding  other  kinds  of  farm  animals  as 
well  as  beef  cattle : 

I.  Composition  of  plants  and  animals. 

1.  Composition  of  matter,     (a)  Elements;  (6)  compounds. 

2.  Relation  of  plants  to  the  soil. 

3.  General  composition  of  plants. 

4.  Relation  of  animals  to  plants. 

5.  General  composition  of  animals. 

6.  The  cycle  of  organic  matter. 


II.  Nutrients. 

1.  Carbohydrates,     (a)  Nature;  (6)  sources. 

2.  Proteids.     (a)  Nature;  (6)  sources. 

3.  Fats,     (a)  Nature;  (6)  sources. 

4.  Relative  value  of  nutrients. 

5.  Water  and  mineral  matter. 

III.  Digestion,  assimilation,  and  excretion. 

1.  Nature  of  each  process. 

2.  Organs. 

3.  Importance  of  normal  function. 

IV.  Function  of  nutrients. 

1.  Carbohydrates. 

2.  Proteids. 

3.  Fats. 

4.  Water  and  mineral. 
V.  Feeding  standards. 

1.  The  nutritive  ratio. 

2.  Comparison  of  standards. 

3.  Relative  needs  of  animals  of  different  classes. 

4.  Practice  in  determining  ratio. 
VI.  Feeding  stuffs. 

1.  Coarse  feeds,    (a)  Place  of  roughages  in  the  ration;    (b)  animal  forage 

crops;     (c)  hay  and  straw;     (d)  pastures;     (e)  soiling  crops;    (f)  silos 
and  silage. 

2.  Concentrates,     (a)  Place  in  the  ration;     (b)  cereals;     (c)  commercial 

feeding  stuffs. 
VII.  Purposes  in  feeding. 

1.  Maintenance. 

2.  Growth  and  development. 

3.  Feeding  for  work. 

4.  Wool  production. 

5.  Milk  production. 

6.  Meat  production. 

The  beef  type. — A  study  of  the  beef  type  furnishes  an  excellent  approach  to  a  study 
of  beef  production.  It  should  be  the  aim  of  such  a  study  to  show  the  student  what 
may  be  accomplished  by  careful  breeding  and  feeding  and  to  establish  in  his  mind 
an  ideal  toward  which  to  work.  At  the  outset  the  students  should  understand  clearly 
the  function  of  meat-producing  animals;  that  they  are  essentially  living  machines, 
or  factories,  which  convert  raw  material,  mostly  in  the  nature  of  foodstuffs  in  a  form 
not  available  to  man,  into  a  more  concentrated,  palatable  product.  The  value  of 
the  animal  will  depend  upon  the  nature  and  quality  of  the  product  and  the  efficiency 
with  which  it  is  produced. 

In  establishing  the  ideal  beef  type  in  the  minds  of  the  students,  nothing  is  superior 
to  living  animals  which  approach  perfection.  Advantage  should  be  taken  of  the 
best  beef  cattle  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  school  and  those  exhibited  at  local  fairs, 
as  an  aid  to  students  in  securing  proper  conceptions  of  good  beef  form.  If  the  students 
have  been  considering  the  dairy  type,  it  will  be  helpful  to  contrast  the  form  and 
function  of  the  two  types.  Any  study  of  the  beef  type  in  the  classroom,  to  be  effective, 
should  be  linked  closely  with  the  use  of  the  score  card  and  practical  work  in  judging. 

Market  classes  and  grades. — In  sections  where  beef  production  is  chiefly  a  problem 
of  buying  feeders  and  fattening  them  for  market,  emphasis  should  be  given  a  con- 
sideration of  market  classes  and  grades.  It  will  be  logical  to  consider  this  subject 
in  such  sections  in  connection  with  a  study  of  the  beef  type.  The  distinction  between 
classes  and  grades  should  be  made  clear  at  the  outset.  The  names  of  the  classes  indicate 
the  use  to  which  the  cattle  are  to  be  put,  hence  we  have  beef  cattle,  butcher  stock, 
cutters  and  canners,  stockers  and  feeders,  and  veal  calves.  The  grades  have  reference 
to  quality,  condition,  and  conformation,  as  they  influence  market  value.  The  grades — 
prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  common  and  inferior — may  apply  more  or  less  to  all 
of  the  classes.  A  knowledge  of  market  classes  and  grades  is  of  special  importance  in 
connection  with  marketing  if  the  students  are  to  follow  the  market  fluctuations  intelli- 
gently. The  class  which  has  an  opportunity  to  visit  one  of  the  larger  markets  or  packing 
houses  will  be  especially  favored  in  getting  acquainted  with  the  market  methods 
of  classification. 

Modern  beef  production. — If  time  permits  it  will  prove  interesting  and  helpful  to 
take  a  general  survey  of  the  beef-cattle  industry  in  the  United  States  as  an  intro- 


ductory  lesson.  The  story  of  the  cattle  industry  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  chapters 
in  our  national  history.  The  western  movement  of  the  range  cattle  industry  and  the 
readjustment  of  the  industry  to  meet  modern  conditions  form  an  important  phase 
of  our  agricultural  development.  Emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  the  present-day 
status  of  beef  production,  especially  in  the  particular  section  and  locality  which 
the  school  represents.  If  beef  production  affords  opportunities  for  projects  for  the 
students  in  the  community,  this  is  a  good  point  at  which  to  set  them  forth  with  a 
discussion  of  the  phases  of  the  industry  offering  the  greatest  possibilities. 

Care  and  management. — A  discussion  of  the  main  problems  of  beef  production 
under  this  heading  may  very  well  follow  the  outline  given  in  connection  with  the 
suggestions  on  the  home  project.  Although  the  majority  of  the  students  may  not 
have  a  beef  production  project,  it  will  add  interest  and  give  a  good  basis  for  a  logical 
consideration  of  the  subject  if  it  is  assumed  that  each  one  is  actually  to  meet  the 
practical  problems  involved.  If  the  interests  of  the  students  and  the  community 
are  centered  around  baby  beef  production,  Farmers'  Bulletin  811,  The  Production  of 
Baby  Beef,  may  very  well  form  a  basis  for  the  classroom  discussion.  In  adapting 
the  subject  to  the  various  sections  of  the  country  such  a  publication  should  be  sup- 
plemented with  State  publications  and  department  bulletins  intended  for  limited 
areas.  For  example,  in  the  Southern  States,  Farmers'  Bulletins  580,  Beef  Production 
in  the  South,  and  the  department  bulletins  concerning  beef  production  in  Alabama 
should  be  used.  In  the  Middle  West,  Farmers'  Bulletin  588,  Economical  Cattle 
Feeding  in  the  Corn  Belt,  should  prove  very  helpful. 

Improvement  of  beef  cattle. — In  considering  the  principles  of  breeding  as  applied  to 
beef  cattle,  it  is  assumed  that  in  the  course  in  animal  husbandry  some  time  will  be 
given  to  a  general  discussion  of  the  principles  of  breeding  before  any  attempt  is  made 
to  apply  them  to  a  particular  group  of  animals.  Such  a  general  discussion  should 
be  adapted  to  the  capacities  of  secondary  students,  hence  would  involve  only  the 
most  important  principles  as  suggested  in  the  following  outline : 

I.  Variation  in  animals. 

1.  Law  of  variation. 

2.  Sports  and  mutations. 

3.  Selection,     (a)  Natural;  (6)  by  man. 
II.  Heredity. 

1.  Comparison  of  law  with  variation. 

2.  Mendel's  law. 

3.  Cross  breeding  v.  line  breeding. 

III.  Prepotency. 

1.  Value  in  breeding.     Prepotent  individual. 

2.  A  study  of  pedigrees. 

3.  Registration  of  animals. 

IV.  Practical  problems  in  breeding. 

1.  Increasing  variation. 

2.  Selection  according  to  ideals. 

3.  Testing  hereditary  power. 
V.  Improvement  of  common  stock. 

1.  Weeding  out  unprofitable  individuals. 

2.  Use  of  pure-bred  sires. 

3.  Cooperative  breeding. 

In  applying  such  general  principles  to  the  improvement  of  beef  cattle  special  con- 
sideration* should  be  given  the  selection  of  animals  for  breeding  purposes.  This 
subject  will  connect  closely  with  a  study  of  the  beef  type,  a  study  of  breeds,  and 
practical  work  in  judging.  "  If  time  permits,  interest  may  be  developed  in  a  study  of 
noted  individuals  and  families  of  beef  cattle  and  a  consideration  of  pedigrees.  The 
care  and  management  of  the  bull  should  be  considered  at  this  time,  as  well  as  the 
care  and  management  of  the  cow  at  calving  time. 

Breeds  of  beef  cattle. — In  sections  where  a  study  of  market  classes  and  grades  is  not 
of  great  relative  importance  there  may  be  advantage  in  considering  breeds  of  beef 
cattle  in  connection  with  a  study  of  the  beef  type.  This  subject,  however,  follows 
logically  in  any  case  a  discussion  of  the  breeding  of  beef  cattle.  Farmers'  Bulletin 
612,  Breeds  of  Beef  Cattle,  will  serve  well  as  a  basis  for  a  discussion  of  breeds.  Em- 
phasis should  be  placed  upon  the  breed  or  breeds  most  important  and  best  adapted 
to  the  section  which  the  school  serves.  A  good  deal  of  time  may  be  wasted  in  a 
detailed  consideration  of  breeds  with  which  the  students  will  have  little  to  do. 


SCHOOL  AND  HOME  PRACTICUMS. 

Judging  beef  cattle.1 — (a)  Comparison  of  beef  and  dairy  type. — Practical  judging  of 
beef  cattle  may  very  well  begin  with  a  lesson  in  the  field,  wherein  an  animal  of  good 
beef  form  is  compared  with  an  animal  which  lacks  the  beef  type.  If  the  class  has 
made  a  study  of  the  dairy  type,  the  students  may  then  make  a  comparison  of  an 
animal  approaching  the  ideal  beef  type  with  a  dairy  cow  of  good  form,  the  object  of 
such  a  lesson  being  to  show  the  relation  of  form  to  function  and  to  aid  in  developing 
in  the  minds  of  the  students  an  ideal  beef  type. 

(6)  Use  of  the  score  card  for  fat  cattle. — The  use  of  a  score  card  on  animals  of  good 
type  should  also  aid  the  students  in  establishing  ideals.  The  score  card  is  a  classifi- 
cation of  the  points  of  the  animal,  giving  to  each  a  weight  or  percentage  intended  to 
indicate  its  relative  importance  to  the  whole.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  the  purposes  of 
aiding  the  students  to  examine  the  animal  in  a  systematic  manner,  that  they  may 
overlook  no  details  and  that  they  may  develop  judgment  with  regard  to  the  relative 
importance  of  points.  A  distinction  should  be  made  between  the  score  card  which 
represents  the  general  beef  type  and  score  cards  for  the  various  beef  breeds  which 
represent  the  distinctive  breed  types.  Use  of  the  score  card  for  fat  cattle  of  the  beef 
type  should  accompany  a  study  of  the  beef  type.  Score  cards  for  this  purpose  are 
usually  furnished  by  the  State  agricultural  college.  Use  of  the  breed  score  cards 
may  accompany  a  study  of  breeds.  Cards  for  this  purpose  are  usually  furnished  by 
the  breed  association. 

Comparative  judging. — The  use  of  the  score  card  should  be  considered  but  prelimi- 
nary to  real  judging,  i.  e..  by  comparison  and  placing  according  to  merit.  In  trying 
out  and  developing  the  judgment  of  students  in  comparative  judging,  it  will  be  better 
to  select  animals  at  first  which  have  marked  difference  in  beef  form.  As  skill  is  de- 
veloped, animals  more  nearly  equal  may  be  chosen.  As  a  preliminary  also  to  placing 
according  to  general  merit,  it  may  be  well  to  have  the  students  place  them  according 
to  one  general  feature,  such  as  conformation,  quality,  or  condition.  The  students 
should  also  have  practice  in  estimating  weights.  Such  practice  will  be  helpful  in 
connection  with  giving  reasons  for  their  placings  according  to  general  merit. 

Judging  market  cattle. — The  secondary  school  may  not  aspire  to  train  judges  for  the 
show  ring,  but  the  practical  work  in  judging  should  develop  ability  in  determining 
the  value  of  such  cattle  as  are  bought  and  sold  by  the  farmer.  The  students  should 
keep  in  touch  with  market  conditions,  and,  as  a  final  test  of  their  ability  to  judge  fat 
cattle,  place  a  market  value  on  finished  cattle.  If  time  permits,  they  should  also  be 
given  practice  in  selecting  suitable  cattle  for  feeding  and  place  a  money  value  upon 
them.  The  judgment  of  the  students  should  be  checked  up  with  the  judgment  of  the 
owners  and  actual  sales,  if  possible.  In  connection  with  a  study  of  breeding  and  a 
consideration  of  breeds,  opportunity  should  be  given  in  selecting  animals  with  a  defi- 
nite aim  in- breeding  in  mind.  The  idea  is  to  apply  the  student's  training  in  stock 
judging  to  conditions  such  as  the  student  will  meet  as  a  farmer.  If  any  number  of  the 
students  are  going  to  start  their  home  projects  with  calves,  special  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  selecting  of  calves. 

There  is  an  advantage  in  judging  animals  intended  for  the  local  market  or  for  butch- 
ering on  the  farm,  as  there  may  be  an  opportunity  to  compare  the  judgment  of  the 
students  on  the  animal  before  slaughter  with  the  carcass  after  killing.  A  study  of 
the  cuts  of  beef  in  connection  with  judging  should  at  least  aid  the  students  in  keeping 
the  fact  in  mind  that  the  butcher  and  consumer  are  the  ultimate  judges,  and  that  their 
needs  must  be  kept  in  mind. 

Fitting  for  the  show  ring. — Although  it  is  beyond  the  scope  of  the  secondary  school 
to  give  much  attention  to  show-ring  considerations,  either  in  the  training  of  judges  or 
in  the  fitting  of  cattle,  local  shows  and  fairs  should  be  encouraged.  Wherever  any 
number  of  students  have  beef  cattle  to  exhibit  at  a  school  or  locaffair.  some  time  may 
be  spent  very  profitably  in  aiding  the  students  to  fit  their  animals  properly .  It  may  be 
advisable  to  assign  such  work  as  individual  home  practicums  instead  of  taking  the 
time  of  the  class  as  a  whole. 

Making  equipment. — A  considerable  amount  of  equipment  is  needed  in  connection 
with  beef  production,  and  this  may  be  made  by  the  students  as  a  part  of  their  work  in 
farm  mechanics.  Such  exercises  as  the  making  of  feed  racks  and  watering  troughs  may 
be  made  cooperative  between  classes  in  animal  husbandry  and  farm  mechanics  or 
assigned  to  students  as  individual  home  work. 

Making  and  using  a  dipping  vat. — In  tick-infested  sections  of  the  South,  a  number  of 
the  agricultural  schools  have  constructed  dipping  vats  for  the  use  of  the  community. 

1  See  Department  Bulletin  434.  Judging  the  Dairy  Cow  as  a  Subject  of  Instruction  in  Secondary  Schools. 
Many  of  the  suggestions  with  regard  to  teaching  given  in  this  bulletin  will  apply  to  judging  beef  cattle. 


Such  a  project  not  only  gives  good  training  in  concrete  construction  and  practice  in 
dipping,  but  also  an  excellent  beginning  toward  broad  community  service.  The 
drafting  of  plans  for  barns  and  sheds  should  accompany  practical  construction. 

Simple  operations. — A  teacher  "with  a  little  veterinary  training  may  go  too  far  in 
attempting  to  make  his  students  independent  of  the  professional  services  of  a  veteri- 
narian. Thereare  simple  operations  and  practices  in  the  prevention  of  disease,  however, 
in  which  the  secondary  school  should  aid  its  students.  Every  student  may  not  become 
skilled  in  such  operations  as  castrating  and  dehorning,  but  if  the  teacher  is  properly 
prepared  to  direct  such  work,  every  student  should  have  an  opportunity  to  develop 
skill  in  such  operations.  The  same  idea  will  hold  with  regard  to  vaccination  in  sections 
where  blackleg  prevails.  The  teacher  should  give  demonstrations  for  the  benefit  of 
the  class.  It  will  be  preferable  not  to  require  all  the  students  to  do  the  work,  but  to 
give  special  help  to  individual  students  who  wish  to  practice  further  at  home. 

Common  farm  practice. — There  are  certain  phases  of  farm  practice  which  every 
farm  boy  should  know  and  which  the  majority  of  students  Irving  on  farms  will  know 
as  a  part  of  their  general  training.  If  any  student  taking  animal  husbandry  does  not 
know  how  properly  to  teach  a  calf  to  drink,  or  to  administer  salts,  or  such  medicine, 
he  should  be  required  to  secure  home  practice  and  demonstrate  his  proficiency  as  a 
part  of  the  course.  Each  student  should  also  know  how  to  milk  a  cow  in  an  efficient, 
sanitary  manner. 

Preparing  rations. — While  weighing  out  and  compounding  portions  of  rations  may 
form  a  suitable  laboratory  exercise,  and  the  working  out  of  balanced  rations  will  pre- 
sent excellent  problems  in  connection  with  a  classroom  discussion  of  feeding,  the  prep- 
aration of  actual  rations  for  cattle  in  the  feed  lot  will  afford  the  best  kind  of  practice. 
Whether  students  are  having  a  home  project  in  beef  production  or  not,  if  they  have 
anything  to  do  with  the  feeding  of  beef  animals,  they  should  be  encouraged  to  keep 
a  record  of  the  feeding  and  its  results.  The  keeping  of  such  a  record  may  be  made  a 
minor  project. 

Records  and  accounts. — Each  student  having  a  beef-production  project,  or  a  project 
in  keeping  a  record  of  beef  production,  should  have  a  record  book  in  which  daily 
entry  is  made  of  the  feeding,  management,  and  results  obtained.1 

The  following  summary  and  financial  statement  will  be  suggestive  of  records  to  be 
kept: 

SUMMARY  AND  FINANCIAL  STATEMENT  OF  A  BEEF-PRODUCTION  PROJECT. 

From 19. .,  to 19. . . 


Student. 
Address. 
Breed. . 


School 

Number  of  animals . 
Purpose  of  project.. 


Record  of  Feed  axd  Labor. 


Date. 

Pounds 

of  grain 

fed. 

Pounds 
of  rough- 
age fed. 

Cost  of  feed.                                                  Labor. 

Grain.                  Roughage.                  Total.              Hours.    Value. 

Jan 

Dollars. 

Cents.     Dollars. 

Cento. 

Dollars.     Cents. 

Feb 

Mar 

Apr < 



May 

June 

Julv 

Aug 





Sept 

i ! 

Oct 

1                           

Nov 

Dec .J . 

Total. 


1  Record  forms  such  as  used  by  members  of  the  baby  beef  clubs  will  be  suitable  for  such  projects.    These 
record  books  may  be  obtained  from  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  of  this  department. 


Financial  Statement. 

value  of  increase. 

From  increase  in  weight $. 

From  increase  in  selling  price 

From  increase  by  births 

From  manures. 

From  hides,  etc 


Total  value  of  increase. 


EXPENSES. 

Concentrates  fed $. 

Roughages  fed 

Value  of  pasture 

Rental  of  buildings 

Care  of  live  stock 

Other  expenses 


Total  expenses .  . 
Net  profit  from  project. 
Net  profit  per  head 


A  home  project. — In  sections  adapted  to  beef  cattle,  a  special  effort  should  be  made 
at  this  time  to  get  students  of  agriculture  who  are  living  at  home  to  take  hold  of  some 
phase  of  beef  production  as  a  home  project.  Taking  hold  of  such  a  project  at  this 
time  will  be  rendering  a  patriotic  service,  especially  if  any  time  or  feed  is  used  that 
might  otherwise  be  wasted.  The  primary  motive  that  the  teacher  should  have, 
however,  in  getting  the  student  to  take  hold  of  such  a  project,  is  not  so  much  to  increase 
production  as  it  is  to  secure  training  for  the  boy.  A  boy  who  raises  a  number  of 
calves  successfully  and  turns  them  out  as  prime  beef  can  not  help  being  better  for  the 
effort  he  has  put  forth.  Although  the  aim  of  an  initial  project  may  be  to  feed  and 
fatten  one  or  more  animals  for  market,  the  teacher  should  not  feel  satisfied  unless 
some  of  the  students  are  inspired  to  continue  with  the  idea  of  developing  a  breeding 
herd  of  pure-bred  animals. 

The  home  project  in  beef  production  may  very  well  be  in  cooperation  with  the  work 
of  the  baby  beef  clubs,  where  these  are  established.  In  many  cases,  it  will  be  desir- 
able to  combine  a  pork-production  project  with  the  project  in  beef  production.  In 
sections  where  whole  corn  is  fed,  it  will  be  especially  desirable  to  have  pigs  follow  the 
beef  cattle  in  the  feed  lot.  In  a  number  of  sections  bankers  and  other  public-spirited 
men  have  made  it  possible  for  the  boys  to  get  both  calves  and  pigs  of  good  breeding. 

The  following  outline  intended  to  cover  baby-beef  production  may  be  modified 
to  fit  local  conditions,  and  adapted  to  other  phases  of  beef  production  such  as  fatten- 
ing older  stock: 

BEEF  PROJECT  STUDY  OUTLINE. 

BABY-BEEF   PRODUCTION. 

I.  What  are  the  present  prospects  for  profitable  beef  production  in  this  section? 

1.  Is  this  section  especially  suited  to  beef  cattle? 

2.  What  results  are  being  obtained  by  progressive  farmers  in  feeding  beef 

cattle? 

3.  Is  there  a  local  m?rket  for  a  high-class  product? 

4.  Are  there  facilities  for  shipping  to  good  markets? 

5.  Can  I  have  the  use  of  good  pastures  and  obtain  an  abundance  of  other 

cheap  forage? 

6.  How  do  the  prices  paid  for  beef  compare  with  the  prices  of  hay  and 

grain? 

7.  May  I  obtain  some  good  stock  at  a  reasonable  price? 

8.  Are  there  any  diseases  and  pests  which  may  prove  serious  and  beyond 

my  control? 

9.  How  will  the  care  of  cattle  fit  in  with  my  other  work  and  with  the 

general  management  of  our  farm? 
10.  Do  I  like  cattle  and  enjoy  working  with  them? 


II.  How  shall  I  start  with  my  project? 

1.  What  shall  be  my  aim  in  beef  production? 

2.  Why  is  there  a  tendency  at  the  present  time  toward  the  early  mar- 

keting of  beef  animals? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  baby-beef  production? 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  of  baby-beef  production? 

5.  What  are  the  general  disadvantages  of  producing  baby  beef? 

6.  What  particular  factors  are  there  for  and  against  producing  baby  beef 

under  the  conditions  which  I  shall  have  to  meet? 

7 .  Shall  I  start  with  cows  or  with  calves? 

8.  How  many  calves  should  I  feed  to  make  profitable  use  of  my  time? 

9.  Will  it  be  possible  for  me  to  take  over  all  or  a  part  of  the  management 

of  the  beef  cattle  on  the  home  farm? 

10.  Will  it  be  most  profitable  to  start  with  cows  and  raise  their  calves  or 

to  buy  calves  for  feeding? 

11.  Where  can  I  get  suitable  stock  for  a  beginning? 

III.  What  type  and  breed  shall  I  select? 

1 .  Why  can  I  not  expect  to  make  good  baby  beef  from  the  calves  of  cows 

of  pronounced  dairy  type? 

2.  Under  what  conditions  will  calves  of  dual-purpose  cows  make  good 

baby  beef? 

3.  What  are  the  chief  characteristics  of  cows  from  which  suitable  calves 

may  be  expected? 

4.  Why  is  the  breeding  and  the  individual  character  of  the  bull  of  more 

importance  than  that  of  the  cow? 

5.  What  are  the  chief  qualities  I  should  look  for  in  a  bull  intended  to 

sire  beef  calves? 

6.  How  do  the  bulls  available  for  service  in  this  community  measure  up 

to  a  standard  of  perfection  for  beef  animals? 

7.  What  special  qualities  are  to  be  sought  in  animals  intended  for  baby 

beef?^ 

8.  Why  must  great  attention  be  given  the  breeding  of  calves  which  I 

might  select  for  baby-beef  production? 

9.  What  qualities  can  be  determined  and  should  be  carefully  noted  in 

the  calf  itself? 

10.  Which  breed  is  best  adapted  to  this  section? 

11.  What  are  the  relative  merits  of  the  leading  beef  breeds  in  relation  to 

the  production  of  baby  beef? 

12.  Is  there  not  a  possibility  of  working  toward  building  up  a  breeding 

herd  of  pure-bred  cattle? 

13.  Can  pure-bred  stock  be  obtained  in  the  community  at  prices  which  will 

permit  of  profitable  feeding  for  market? 

14.  Where  can  I  obtain  stock  which  will  suit  my  purpose  best  at  a  reason- 

able price? 

IV.  What  equipment  will  I  need  for  beef  production? 

1.  What  improvements  or  modifications  should  be  made  with  regard 

to  sheds  and  yards  to  make  them  suitable  for  the  care  and  manage- 
ment of  cattle? 

2.  Can  I  plan  barns  and  sheds  suitable  for  beef  cattle  in  this  section? 

3.  What  kind  of  feeding  racks  will  prove  most  efficient  and  economical 

with  regard  to  both  labor  and  feed? 

4.  What  facilities  must  be  provided  for  watering? 

5.  Can  I  make  suitable  feed  racks  and  watering  troughs? 

6.  What  provisions  must  be  made  for  prevention  and  control  of  pests  and 

disease? 

7.  Will  I  need  to  build  a  dipping  vat  or  may  I  have  the  use  of  a  vat  in 

the  community  in  case  of  tick  infection? 
V.  Do  I  understand  the  feeding  and  management  of  young  calves? 

1.  What  are  the  advantages  of  the  fall  calving  plan? 

2.  What  are  the  disadvantages  of  this  plan? 

3.  Will  the  fall  or  spring  plan  serve  best  under  local  conditions  in 

this  section? 

4.  What  are  the  four  systems  of  management  of  cows  and  calves  which 

are  practiced  most  extensively  in  the  United  States? 

5.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each  system? 

6.  Which  system  is  best  adapted  to  our  local  conditions? 

7.  At  what  time  should  calves  be  dehorned,  castrated,  and  vaccinated? 


10 

8.  What  is  the  best  method  for  dehorning? 

9.  How  are  the  males  most  successfully  castrated? 

10.  Can  I  perform  these  operations  skillfully? 

11.  Is  blackleg  prevalent  in  this  section? 

12.  Can  I  vaccinate  calves  successfully? 

13.  Why  may  it  be  necessary  to  repeat  vaccination? 

14.  Why  will  not  skim  milk  take  the  place  of  whole  milk  sucked  fresh 

from  the  dam  in  starting  beef  calves? 

15.  Why  should  the  milk  be  supplemented  with  grain  before  the  calf  is 

weaned? 

16.  What  kind  of  grain  is  best  suited  to  feeding  before  the  calf  is  weaned? 

17.  What  amount  of  grain  should  be  given  at  this  time,  and  in  what  form 

should  it  be  fed? 

18.  Why  is  weaning  time  the  critical  period  with  calves  intended  for  baby 

beef? 

19.  What  provision  may  be  made  to  increase  the  grain  for  the  calves  while 

still  running  with  the  cows? 

20.  How  and  why  should  the  calves  be  weaned  gradually? 

VI.  How  can  I  develop  the  weaned  calves  and  finish  them  best  for  market? 

1.  Why  will  the  plan  of  feeding  and  management  depend  upon  the  time 

the  calf  is  born? 

2.  What  influence  will  the  age  of  marketing  have  upon  the  plan  of  feeding? 

3.  Can  I  work  out  a  definite  plan  of  feeding  and  management  for  the  calves 

I  shall  feed  showing  the  kind  of  feed  and  management  for  each  month 
of  the  year? 

4.  What  feeds  will  supplement  pasture  feeding  best  in  this  section? 

5.  What  will  be  a  suitable  ration  for  a  yearling  calf  in  the  feed  lot  in  this 

section  at  the  present  time? 

6.  Why  are  alfalfa  and  clover  hay  excellent  feeds  for  young  stock? 

7.  What  are  the  particular  merits  of  silage  as  a  roughage? 

8.  Why  are  corn  and  cottonseed  meal  or  linseed  meal  of  great  value  in 

finishing  for  market? 

9.  Are  there  any  concentrates  which  will  take  the  place  of  these  feeds  in 

this  section? 

10.  Why  does  oat  straw  have  special  value? 

11.  How  is  the  fattening  ration  increased? 

12.  Why  is  better  success  obtained  in  the  dry  lot  than  by  attempting  to 

finish  in  pasture? 

13.  Why  must  care  be  exercised  in  attempting  to  change  from  dry  lot  to 

pasture? 

14.  Why  is  there  an  advantage  in  having  pigs  to  follow  the  calves  in  the 

feed  lot? 

15.  How  many  pigs  shall  I  need  to  take  care  of  the  waste  of  the  calves  I 

shall  feed? 
VII.  Do  I  understand  the  management  of  a  breeding  herd? 

1.  Why  is  a  herd  of  30  to  35  cows  a  desirable  unit  for  baby-beef  pro- 

duction? 

2.  What  advantage  has  a  breeder  who  can  keep  twice  that  number  of  cows? 

3.  What  are  the  relative  advantages  of  allowing  a  bull  to  run  with  the 

herd,  and  of  keeping  him  apart  from  the  cows? 

4.  What  is  a  suitable  ration  for  a  breeding  bull? 

5.  Why  should  abundant  exercise  be  provided  for  the  bull? 

6.  What  kind  of  exercise  is  best  suited  to  his  needs? 

7.  When  should  the  cows  be  bred  for  producing  baby-beef  calves  under 

the  system  of  management  best  suited  to  this  section? 

8.  At  what  age  should  beef  heifers  bring  the  first  calf? 

9.  Why  should  the  greater  part  of  the  ration  of  breeding  cows  consist  of 

roughage? 

10.  What  attention  should  be  given  cows  on  good  pasture? 

11.  What  will  constitute  a  good  winter  ration  in  this  section? 

12.  WTiy  should  the  system  of  feeding  and  management  vary  with  the 

seasons  in  which  it  is  intended  the  cows  shall  calf? 

13.  Do  I  understand  how  to  handle  cows  at  breeding  time? 

14.  Do  I  understand  how  to  handle  cows  at  calving  time? 


11 

VIII.  How  may  beef  cattle  be  marketed  to  best  advantage? 

1.  Are  there  good  local  markets  for  beef  cattle? 

2.  Do  I  understand  the  requirements  of  the  local  market? 

3.  What  facilities  are  afforded  for  shipping  to  distant  markets? 

4.  Do  I  understand  the  classification  and  requirements  of  the  live-stock 

market? 

5.  Is  there  a  possibility  of  a  cooperative  live-stock  association  in  this 

section? 

6.  Do  I  know  how  to  kill  and  dress  beef  for  home  use  or  for  local  trade? 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICUL- 
TURE RELATING  TO  BEEF  PRODUCTION. 

AVAILABLE  FOR  FREE  DISTRIBUTION  BY  THE  DEPARTMENT. 

Dehorning  of  Cattle  (Farmers'  Bulletin  350). 

Methods  of  Exterminating  Texas-fever  Tick  (Farmers'  Bulletin  498). 
Texas  or  Tick  Fever  (Farmers'  Bulletin  569). 
The  Making  and  Feeding  of  Silage  (Farmers'  Bulletin  578). 
Beef  Production  in  the  South  (Farmers'  Bulletin  580). 
Economical  Cattle  Feeding  in  the  Corn  Belt  (Farmers'  Bulletin  588). 
Breeds  of  Beef  Cattle  (Farmers'  Bulletin  612). 
Cottonseed  Meal  for  Feeding  Beef  Cattle  (Farmers'  Bulletin  655). 
Cooperative  Live  Stock  Shipping  Associations  (Farmers'  Bulletin  718). 
Prevention  of  Losses  of  Live  Stock  from  Plant  Poisoning  (Farmers'  Bulletin  720). 
Feeding  of  Grain  Sorghums  to  Live  Stock  (Farmers'  Bulletin  724). 
Marketing  Live  Stock  in  the  South  (Farmers'  Bulletin  809). 
Production  of  Baby  Beef  (Farmers'  Bulletin  811). 

How  Live  Stock  is  Handled  in  the  Bluegrass  Region  of  Kentucky  (Farmers'  Bulletin 
812). 

Utilization  of  Farm  Wastes  in  Feeding  Live  Stock  (Farmers'  Bulletin  873). 
Cattle  Lice  and  How  to  Eradicate  Them  (Farmers'  Bulletin  809). 

FOR  SALE  BY  THE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  DOCUMENTS,  GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE, 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

Stock-watering  Places  on  the  Western  Grazing  Land  (Farmers'  Bulletin  592). 
Price,  5  cents. 

The  Shrinkage  in  Weight  of  Beef  Cattle  in  Transit  (Department  Bulletin  25). 
Price,  10  cents. 

Raising  and  Fattening  Beef  Calves  in  Alabama  (Department  Bulletin  73).  Price, 
5  cents. 

Experiments  in  Beef  Production  in  Alabama  (Department  Bulletin  103).  Price, 
10  cents. 

Fattening  Cattle  in  Alabama  (Department  Bulletin  110).     Price,  10  cents. 

Use  of  Energy  Values  in  the  Computation  of  Rations  for  Farm  Animals  (Department 
Bulletin  459).     Price,  5  cents. 

(Issued  April  8, 1918.) 

(12) 

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